What is Kwanzaa? When the winter African American holiday begins

The Kwanzaa first fruits of the harvest and candles sit on a table.

Kwanzaa begins at the end of December, meaning a time for family and community togetherness for many Black people throughout the United States.

Here’s what you need to know about the African American holiday:

What is Kwanzaa?

The name Kwanzaa comes from the Swahili phrase “Matunda ya kwanza,” meaning first fruits, referring to harvest festivals that are common through Africa, according to the National Museum of African American History and Culture.

Celebrated at the end of December, it is a secular holiday celebrating African American culture and history, as well as a time of togetherness for families and community.

When is Kwanzaa? How many days are in Kwanzaa?

Kwanzaa begins on Dec. 26 and continues to Jan. 1.

Who created Kwanzaa?

Kwanzaa is not a holiday that is native to Africa, but is inspired by a pan-African celebration of traditional harvest festivals.

Maulana Karenga, an American professor and activist, created Kwanzaa in 1966 as a way to welcome the first harvests into the home, according to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center. Karenga developed the holiday in response to the growing commercialization of Christmas.

What are the seven principals of Kwanzaa?

There are “seven principles” of Kwanzaa: unity (umoja), self-determination (kujichagulia), collective work and responsibility (ujima), cooperative economics (ujamaa), purpose (nia), creativity (kuumba) and faith (imani).

How is Kwanzaa celebrated? What are the meaning of the candles?

Each of the seven nights of Kwanzaa a candle is lit to commemorate each of the seven principles of the holiday, according to the University of Pennsylvania. The area around the candle is often decorated with harvest fruits and other objects symbolizing some of the aspects of Kwanzaa.

Meals also play a large part in the celebrations, and during Kwanzaa many families cook their favorite African-American dishes, as well as traditional African, Caribbean and South American recipes.

Gifts are also often exchanged on Dec. 31.

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Cbehrens@dispatch.com

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9 new library cards will honor the contributions of Black artists in Oakland

Beginning in February, Oakland Public Library patrons will be able to select from nine colorful new library card designs—all honoring the contributions of Black artists in Oakland.

The library announced the winners of its fall design contest this week, ahead of the Black History Month debut of the cards. Judges sifted through more than 100 submissions to come up with the nine selections—three more than originally planned.

Among them are odes to graffiti art and to the many hip-hop musicians with Oakland roots. Three of the cards honor the art of the Black Panther Party, which was founded in Oakland in 1966. Two of those pay homage to the style of Emory Douglas, the party’s “Revolutionary Artist” and “Minister of Culture” whose bold, iconic images created the aesthetic of the movement. The third recognizes three well-known women of the Black Panther Party for their art, too.

“The winning designs capture the essence of Black artistry, culture, and history, reflecting the vibrant spirit of Oakland,” the Oakland Public Library said in its announcement.

<img decoding="async" width="1200" height="904" data-attachment-id="433030" data-permalink="https://oaklandside.org/2023/12/14/oakland-public-library-card-contest-winners/carlo-barravino-11-09-2023/" data-orig-file="http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland.jpg" data-orig-size="1200,904" data-comments-opened="0" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"1"}" data-image-title="Carlo-Barravino-11-09-2023" data-image-description data-image-caption="

Carlo Barravino’s “We Are All Rulers of Our Artistic Journey,” featuring Jean-Michel Basquiat, is on one of the library cards launching in February.

” data-medium-file=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-3.jpg” data-large-file=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland.jpg” src=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland.jpg” alt=”Colorful marker drawing of Jean-Michel Basquiat.” class=”wp-image-433030″ srcset=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland.jpg 1200w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-3.jpg 600w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-4.jpg 768w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-5.jpg 400w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-6.jpg 200w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-7.jpg 1024w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-8.jpg 706w” sizes=”(max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px”>

Carlo Barravino’s “We Are All Rulers of Our Artistic Journey,” featuring Jean-Michel Basquiat, is on one of the library cards launching in February. Credit: Barravino/Oakland Public Library

Three of the limited-edition cards were designed by children, three by teenagers, and three by adults. Their art will be shown in an exhibit in February.

In the adult category, Kelly To create a collage-style card to emulate and honor Douglas.

“He managed to use limited resources (most of the pieces he created were in his home) to pump out media like newsletters and graphics in hopes of interacting [with] and educating the Black community,” To said in an artist’s statement. “What stood out to me from his creative work is how he often represented Black Joy especially for children and mothers rather than focusing on just the racial disparities.”

<img decoding="async" width="1013" height="638" data-attachment-id="433031" data-permalink="https://oaklandside.org/2023/12/14/oakland-public-library-card-contest-winners/opl_submission_-_emory_douglas/" data-orig-file="http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-1.jpg" data-orig-size="1013,638" data-comments-opened="0" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"1"}" data-image-title="Opl_Submission_-_Emory_Douglas" data-image-description data-image-caption="

Kelly To made “Emory Douglas: The Black Panther Minister of Culture” to honor the radical artist.

” data-medium-file=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-9.jpg” data-large-file=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-1.jpg” src=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-1.jpg” alt=”Collage of Black Panther Party drawings and photos.” class=”wp-image-433031″ srcset=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-1.jpg 1013w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-9.jpg 600w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-10.jpg 768w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-11.jpg 400w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-12.jpg 706w” sizes=”(max-width: 1013px) 100vw, 1013px”>

Kelly To made “Emory Douglas: The Black Panther Minister of Culture” to honor the radical artist. Credit: To/Oakland Public Library

Carlo Barravino made a funky, bright drawing of Jean-Michel Basquiat for a card in the children’s category. While Basquiat was a New Yorker, Barravino thinks his work has resonance locally.

“I was reading that he was a graffiti artist at one point and I think graffiti art can be a way for youth to express their form of art in urban areas such as Oakland,” Barravino wrote. “When you first look at [Basquiat’s] art you may think it has many jumbled images but in fact those images reflect emotions and messages of injustice.”

Shomari Smith’s design, in the adult category, celebrates the 50th anniversary of hip-hop, featuring the names of Oakland rappers and musicians like MC Hammer, Too Short, Living Legends, Richie Rich, and Kev Choice.

<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="1013" height="638" data-attachment-id="433032" data-permalink="https://oaklandside.org/2023/12/14/oakland-public-library-card-contest-winners/ajuan-mance_submission/" data-orig-file="http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-2.jpg" data-orig-size="1013,638" data-comments-opened="0" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"1700086411","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"1"}" data-image-title="Ajuan-Mance_Submission" data-image-description data-image-caption="

Your new library card could display Ajuan Mance’s “The Transformation of Silence into Language,” honoring Black women.

” data-medium-file=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-13.jpg” data-large-file=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-2.jpg” src=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-2.jpg” alt=”An artistic depiction of four Black women dressed identically, holding blank white cards.” class=”wp-image-433032″ srcset=”http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-2.jpg 1013w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-13.jpg 600w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-14.jpg 768w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-15.jpg 400w, http://www.akh99.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/9-new-library-cards-will-honor-the-contributions-of-black-artists-in-oakland-16.jpg 706w” sizes=”(max-width: 1013px) 100vw, 1013px”>

Your new library card could display Ajuan Mance’s “The Transformation of Silence into Language,” honoring Black women. Credit: Mance/The Oaklandside

“Hip-hop music has employed, inspired, and enriched the African American community over the past 50 years and my design lists many of the artists with Oakland roots who have made significant contributions to the culture,” Smith said in a statement.

See all the winning designs.

RankTribe™ Black Business Directory News – Arts & Entertainment

This Week In Black History December 13-19, 2023

… the ex-slaves. Johnson’s racism led to a radicalized Congress … Month. His famous warning to African-Ameri­cans about the need to know … Uncles, was ordained the first African American priest in America on this … RankTribe™ Black Business Directory News

Opinion: What Black voters will never forget about Donald Trump

Opinion by Clay Cane

(CNN) — Editor’s note: Clay Cane is a SiriusXM radio host and the author of “The Grift: The Downward Spiral of Black Republicans from the Party of Lincoln to the Cult of Trump,” which will be published in January 2024. Follow him on X. The opinions expressed in this commentary are his own. Read more opinion at CNN.

From his infamous “what the hell do you have to lose?” remark to his shallow “Platinum Plan” economic agenda for Black Americans, former President Donald Trump’s outreach to the Black community over the years has been little more than political theater, devoid of real substance. But the performance-artist-in-chief might just have outdone himself.

Trump’s latest disingenuous stunt came last month with the boast about winning supposed backing from Black Lives Matter, a group he has disparaged in the past as “a symbol of hate.”

In a Truth Social post last month in which he wrote that he had “done more for Black people than any other President,” Trump wrote that he was proud to have the backing of an individual who purported to be a leading member of a Black Lives Matter chapter in Rhode Island. Trump wrote that he had spoken to the man, Mark Fisher, and that he was “very honored to have his and BLM’s support.”

Trump touting alleged backing from BLM is eye-rolling, considering his years-long attacks on the group, including remarks a few years ago that Black Lives Matter is “bad for Black people.”

The former President might have won Fisher’s endorsement, but Black Lives Matter wants nothing to do with either of them: Fisher is said by leaders of the group to have no current affiliation with the chapter in Rhode Island, which has denounced him as “an imposter.”

Whether or not Trump genuinely believes that Fisher is a leader of BLM, the former president seems to be cynically banking on Black Americans having short memories.

Most of us, however, haven’t forgotten his track record, from his stance on health care, including his recent attacks on Obamacare, to his opposition to greater diversity in the workplace to his efforts to restrict voting rights. We cannot forget that when Trump got started in real estate decades ago, his family was accused of denying rentals to Black prospective tenants, and eventually settled out of court.

And few of us will ever forget that when America found the fortitude to elect a Black man as the nation’s president, it was Trump who waged a racist, conspiracist “birther” campaign to try to undermine and delegitimize then-President Barack Obama.

But Trump’s playbook is not new: It’s the standard script followed by various GOP presidential candidates who — despite a tarnished record on matters of racial equity — invariably attempt 11th-hour appeals to Black voters.

Think back to 2004, when then-President George W. Bush — in a move as disrespectful as any deployed by Trump — cynically voiced support for a ban on gay marriage in a bid appeal to socially conservative Black voters.

Bush may have hoped Black voters would suffer a bout of collective amnesia and forget the war waged by his Justice Department on the voting rights of a Black man in Mississippi named Ike Brown or his attacks on affirmative action. As it turns out, they didn’t forget. He got a meager 11% of the Black vote in 2004, a showing that was only marginally better than that of earlier Republican presidential candidates.

For all of Trump’s checkered history with Black voters, there persists a curious refrain this presidential campaign season that he is gaining ground with them, at least as evidenced by the polls.

Over the past month, The New York Times, Politico, and The Washington Post have all reported about Trump making inroads with Black voters while Biden is said to be losing support with the group. Those reports feel like déjà vu for me, and I don’t buy them.

Even as far back as Ronald Reagan in 1981, there were predictions that the GOP was reclaiming Black voters. Trump’s gains with Black voters in 2020 were given prominent news coverage by  media outlets from ABC News to Politico.

The same storyline was exhaustively covered in the 2022 midterm election, as countless outlets reported that Biden and Democrats were flailing with Black voters and that Trump-backed candidates were breaking through. Back in 2012, there were reports that President Barack Obama was struggling with Black voters. He would go on to earn a larger share of Black voters than any presidential candidate in the modern era.

I’ll say what some political strategists have avoided mentioning: polls don’t tell the whole story. They’re the crystal balls pundits turn to when the news cycle slows. Bad headlines may sell newspapers and garner clicks, but some polling methods are famously flawed and there’s a long history of surveys underestimating Black support for the Democratic candidate.

As someone who hosts a live show on SiriusXM for two hours a day, five days a week on a Black radio channel, my experience is anecdotal, but I can tell from my audience that they’re tired of being inundated by negative polling stories. It’ll take more than last-minute efforts from the GOP — especially ploys like lavishing praise on figures like Mark Fisher — to win over Black voters.

The Republican Party barely has a cohesive political platform, let alone a substantial stance that addresses the concerns of Black communities on gun legislation, health care, fair wages, support for Black businesses, or addressing systemic racism.

Democrats aren’t perfect, but the Biden-Harris administration has managed some significant victories for Black communities. These wins range from substantial support for HBCUs to the SBA doubling its backing of Black-owned businesses in fiscal year 2023.

History suggests that there may be a floor: No Democratic presidential candidate in the past half-century has earned less than 80 percent of the Black vote.

Not that Democrats should sit on their hands or allow themselves to be lulled into complacency because of past overwhelming support from Black voters. Many prominent pollsters have said — as did African American pollster Cornell Belcher in a discussion on NBC television this past week — that they see little risk of Trump making sizable inroads with Black voters although they are still a bit concerned about 2024.

“Enough with all the polling. It’s not predictive of what’s going to happen in the presidential (election)… We use polling to see what the problem is with a campaign and how you fix the problem,” Belcher said.

“I’m more worried about third-party voting than I am worried about Trump,” he added. He remarked that in his recent surveys, when Black voters were asked to name what they see as the greatest threat to the African American community, a plurality cited “not inflation, not crime” — but the “re-election of Donald Trump.”

What also has the Biden team worried is potential voter apathy, and the possibility that third party candidates could win a sizable share of the Black vote. “We have to get the numbers up and we have to get African American voters out to vote,” said Democratic pollster Celinda Lake to the New York Times recently.

The Biden campaign seems to have gotten the message about the need to excite Black voters: It recently launched radio ads across Black and Latino-owned stations, while Vice President Kamala Harris took a month-long tour of historically Black colleges and universities to hear from young Black voters. They’ve got almost a year to gin up their enthusiasm.

Meanwhile, how credible are Trump’s own predictions of huge gains with Black voters? Not very. He recently claimed that his support had risen by 4 or 5 times what it had been since his mug shot was released in August.

And if there’s even a grain of truth that Black voters are departing the Democratic Party, I predict that cynical Republican policies will invariably help to push Black voters right back into the Democratic fold.

One party enacts Confederate Heritage Month, the other agrees Confederates were treasonous. One party aims to destroy the Voting Rights Act, most members of the other party want to restore the Voting Rights Act. A leading figure of one party believes there were “personal” benefits to slavery; the other party rejects the notion that enslaved people benefited from being in bondage.

The 2024 presidential election isn’t a choice between the lesser of two evils. Trump’s plans are to return to the anti-immigrant priorities of his first term and to institute a future dictatorship, among other reprehensible policies.

I can assure you that Black voters are paying close attention, and they won’t be duped.

The-CNN-Wire
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CRISPR and other new technologies open doors for drug development, but which diseases get prioritized? It comes down to money and science

Prescription drugs and vaccines revolutionized health care, dramatically decreasing death from disease and improving quality of life across the globe. But how do researchers, universities and hospitals, and the pharmaceutical industry decide which diseases to pursue developing drugs for?

In my work as director of the Health Outcomes, Policy, and Evidence Synthesis group at the University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, I assess the effectiveness and safety of different treatment options to help clinicians and patients make informed decisions. My colleagues and I study ways to create new drug molecules, deliver them into the body and improve their effectiveness while reducing their potential harms. Several factors determine which avenues of drug discovery that people in research and pharmaceutical companies focus on.

Funding drives research decisions

Research funding amplifies the pace of scientific discovery needed to create new treatments. Historically, major supporters of research like the National Institutes of Health, pharmaceutical industry and private foundations funded studies on the most common conditions, like heart disease, diabetes and mental health disorders. A breakthrough therapy would help millions of people, and a small markup per dose would generate hefty profits.

As a consequence, research on rare diseases was not well-funded for decades because it would help fewer people and the costs of each dose had to be very high to turn a profit. Of the more than 7,000 known rare diseases, defined as fewer than 200,000 people affected in the U.S., only 34 had a therapy approved by the Food and Drug Administration before 1983.

The passage of the Orphan Drug Act changed this trend by offering tax credits, research incentives and prolonged patent lives for companies actively developing drugs for rare diseases. From 1983 to 2019, 724 drugs were approved for rare diseases.

Person sluicing a bucket of ice water over another person's head

The viral ALS ice bucket challenge in 2014 was a fundraising success. Elise Amendola/AP Photo

Emerging social issues or opportunities can significantly affect funding available to develop drugs for certain diseases. When COVID-19 raged across the world, funding from Operation Warp Speed led to vaccine development in record time. Public awareness campaigns such as the ALS ice bucket challenge can also directly raise money for research. This viral social media campaign provided 237 scientists nearly US$90 million in research funding from 2014 to 2018, which led to the discovery of five genes connected amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, commonly called Lou Gehrig’s disease, and new clinical trials.

How science approaches drug development

To create breakthrough treatments, researchers need a basic understanding of what disease processes they need to enhance or block. This requires developing cell and animal models that can simulate human biology.

It can take many years to vet potential treatments and develop the finished drug product ready for testing in people. Once scientists identify a potential biological target for a drug, they use high-throughput screening to rapidly assess hundreds of chemical compounds that may have a desired effect on the target. They then modify the most promising compounds to enhance their effects or reduce their toxicity.

When these compounds have lackluster results in the lab, companies are likely to halt development if the estimated potential revenue from the drug is less than the estimated cost to improve the treatments. Companies can charge more money for drugs that dramatically reduce deaths or disability than for those that only reduce symptoms. And researchers are more likely to continue working on drugs that have a greater potential to help patients. In order to obtain FDA approval, companies ultimately need to show that the drug causes more benefits for patients than harms.

Casgevy, a CRISPR-based treatment for sickle cell anemia, is considered a milestone in gene therapy.

Sometimes, researchers know a lot about a disease, but available technology is insufficient to produce a successful drug. For a long time, scientists knew that sickle cell disease results from a defective gene that leads cells in the bone marrow to produce poorly formed red blood cells, causing severe pain and blood clots. Scientists lacked a way to fix the issue or to work around it with existing methods.

However, in the early 1990s, basic scientists discovered that bacterial cells have a mechanism to identify and edit DNA. With that model, researchers began painstaking work developing a technology called CRISPR to identify and edit genetic sequences in human DNA.

The technology finally progressed to the point where scientists were able to successfully target the problematic gene in patients with sickle cell and edit it to produce normally functioning red blood cells. In December 2023, Casgevy became the first CRISPR-based drug approved by the FDA.

Sickle cell disease made a great target for this technology because it was caused by a single genetic issue. It was also an attractive disease to focus on because it affects around 100,000 people in the U.S. and is costly to society, causing many hospitalizations and lost days of work. It also disproportionately affects Black Americans, a population that has been underrepresented in medical research.

Real-world drug development

To put all these pieces of drug development into perspective, consider the leading cause of death in the U.S.: cardiovascular disease. Even though there are several drug options available for this condition, there is an ongoing need for more effective and less toxic drugs that reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes.

In 1989, epidemiologists found that patients with higher levels of bad, or LDL, cholesterol had more heart attacks and strokes than those with lower levels. Currently, 86 million American adults have elevated cholesterol levels that can be treated with drugs, like the popular statins Lipitor (atorvastatin) or Crestor (rosuvastatin). However, statins alone cannot get everyone to their cholesterol goals, and many patients develop unwanted symptoms limiting the dose they can receive.

Two blister packs of burnt orange pills with days of the week listed on each dose

There are several statins on the market to treat high cholesterol levels. Peter Dazeley/The Image Bank via Getty Images

So scientists developed models to understand how LDL cholesterol is created in and removed from the body. They found that LDL receptors in the liver removed bad cholesterol from the blood, but a protein called PCSK9 prematurely destroys them, boosting bad cholesterol levels in the blood. This led to the development of the drugs Repathy (evolocumab) and Praluent (alirocumab) that bind to PCSK9 and stop it from working. Another drug, Leqvio (inclisiran), blocks the genetic material coding for PCSK9.

Researchers are also developing a CRISPR-based method to more effectively treat the disease.

The future of drug development

Drug development is driven by the priorities of their funders, be it governments, foundations or the pharmaceutical industry.

Based on the market, companies and researchers tend to study highly prevalent diseases with devastating societal consequences, such as Alzheimer’s disease and opioid use disorder. But the work of advocacy groups and foundations can enhance research funding for other specific diseases and conditions. Policies like the Orphan Drug Act also create successful incentives to discover treatments for rare diseases.

However, in 2021, 51% of drug discovery spending in the U.S. was directed at only 2% of the population.. How to strike a balance between providing incentives to develop miracle drug therapies for a few people at the expense of the many is a question researchers and policymakers are still grappling with.